Understanding the Differential Impacts of Climate Change on Women and Children Across India's Agro Ecological Zones

The number of women and girls affected by food insecurity due to climate impacts is projected to rise by nearly 240 million by 2050—compared to 131 million more men and boys.

Citing data from the World Health Organization (2019), the report highlights that around 303,000 women die each year globally from preventable causes linked to pregnancy and childbirth. Additionally, 18 per cent of early adolescent girls experience sexual abuse, and 12 million girls are subjected to child marriage annually. Women also face a greater burden of infectious diseases and experience various health challenges in their post-reproductive years.

The report compiles studies showing how indoor air pollution severely impacts women’s health, especially in rural India. Women using wood or biomass for cooking face high exposure to pollutants. In Karnataka, this exposure was found to match urban traffic levels, increasing blood pressure. Other studies link biomass smoke to pregnancy complications and cognitive decline in older women from poorer households.

The report highlights that floods affect women differently across life stages. Elderly women face higher vulnerability due to poor mobility and health issues, while younger women bear caregiving and income responsibilities, leading to a double burden. Studies from Bihar and Odisha reveal that weak housing, low literacy, and limited access to relief worsen women’s post-flood recovery. In urban areas like Mumbai, unequal gender relations and poor sanitation elevate health risks for women. Flooding also disrupts girls’ education and increases the risk of child marriage.

Urban women face heightened exposure to air pollution from vehicles and industries, with vulnerable groups—like migrants and those in low-income settlements—experiencing limited access to reproductive and hygiene services. In contrast, rural women are more affected by indoor air pollution from biomass use, mental stress due to water scarcity, and livelihood disruptions from climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture. Their adaptive capacity is further constrained by poor access to health services and reliance on vulnerable natural resources.

Several agroecological zones (AEZs) across India emerge as hotspots due to the intersection of high vulnerability indicators—such as underweight women, prevalence of girl child marriage, and intimate partner violence—with high exposure to extreme hydrometeorological hazards. These include the southern part of AEZ-2, parts of AEZ-4, 5, 6, 9, 12, and 13, spanning regions across Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and southern West Bengal. Notably, the Deccan Plateau (AEZ-6, 7), Eastern Ghats (AEZ-8), and Eastern Plains (AEZ-13) reflect overlapping vulnerabilities.

Women who remain in households due to male out-migration experience both gains and challenges. On one hand, remittances enable greater involvement in agriculture, household decision-making, and improved self-confidence. On the other, they face increased workloads, loneliness, reduced health spending, and greater food insecurity, especially amidst agrarian distress.

Around 1 billion children face ‘extremely high risk’ due to their physiological vulnerability and higher exposure to pollution, heat, disease, and extreme weather. A child born in 2020 is expected to face significantly more climate extremes than one born in 1960. Stress from such events can also affect neurodevelopment and mental health.

Children face extreme vulnerability during disasters like floods and cyclones, with risks of injury, displacement, and death, worsened by limited access to clean water and services. Rising sea levels have increased child drowning risks, especially in coastal areas. Diarrhoeal diseases, often fatal for children with poor immunity, spike post-disaster and account for nearly 300,000 child deaths annually. More research is needed to assess the specific impact of such events on children.

Disasters place a heavy burden on girl children, especially regarding access to safe WASH facilities, highlighting deep inequalities. Migrant children in temporary shelters face heightened risks, though zone-wise data is limited. Studies from Assam reveal menstrual hygiene challenges during floods, while water scarcity often forces girls to skip or drop out of school to fetch water. Heat stress and inadequate school water facilities further affect girls' health and education.

Climate shocks like irregular rainfall are linked to rising domestic violence and child marriage in India, revealing gendered implications of climate-conflict dynamics. Studies show increased child marriages during rainfall shocks, with around 1.5 million girls under 18 married annually. Post-disaster contexts such as Cyclone Fani (Odisha) and Cyclone Amphan (Sundarbans) placed adolescent girls at higher risk of forced marriage. Such practices are often used as coping mechanisms in disasters. Additionally, pulling girls from school during droughts to fetch water or manage household chores further reinforces gender inequality.

Focus and Factoids by Shrija.

PARI Library’s health archive project is part of an initiative supported by the Azim Premji University to develop a free-access repository of health-related reports relevant to rural India.